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Conversion and contraposition

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Indian path · level 2 · al-Mirqāt · Lesson 15 of 25

Conversion and contraposition

Propositions

القَضَايَا

Arabic text after the print of Deoband after 1336/1917 · translation by The Mantiqi, draft

About this text

al-Mirqāt المِرْقاة

Faḍl-i Imām Khayrābādī (d. 1243 or 1244/1828–29)

Text
Arabic: al-Mirqāt, with al-Shīrkūtī's gloss al-Mirʾāt (gloss not reproduced), checked against the Delhi print of 1286/1869 (Sayyid al-Maṭābiʿ); vowel marks added by The Mantiqi (draft), Kutub Khāna Iʿzāziyya, Deoband after 1336/1917 View the scan
Translation
The Mantiqi's own; a draft.
Review
Draft, awaiting review by Ustadh Muhammad Yusuf.

The text Faḍl-i Imām Khayrābādī

فصل

العَكْسُ المُسْتَوِي، ويُقالُ لَهُ العَكْسُ المُسْتَقِيمُ أيْضًا، وهو عِبارَةٌ عن جَعْلِ الجُزْءِ الأوَّلِ مِنَ القَضِيَّةِ ثانِيًا والجُزْءِ الثّانِي أوَّلًا مَعَ بَقاءِ الصِّدْقِ والكَيْفِ. فالسّالِبَةُ الكُلِّيَّةُ تَنْعَكِسُ كنَفْسِها، كقَوْلِكَ: «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ الإنْسانِ بحَجَرٍ» يَنْعَكِسُ إلى قَوْلِكَ: «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ الحَجَرِ بإنْسانٍ»، بدَلِيلِ الخُلْفِ؛ تَقْرِيرُهُ أنّه لو لم يَصْدُقْ «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ الحَجَرِ بإنْسانٍ» عِنْدَ صِدْقِ قَوْلِنا: «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ الإنْسانِ بحَجَرٍ» لَصَدَقَ نَقِيضُهُ، أعْنِي قَوْلَنا: «بَعْضُ الحَجَرِ إنْسانٌ»، فنَضُمُّهُ مَعَ الأصْلِ ونَقُولُ: «بَعْضُ الحَجَرِ إنْسانٌ، ولا شَيْءَ مِنَ الإنْسانِ بحَجَرٍ»، يُنْتِجُ: «بَعْضُ الحَجَرِ لَيْسَ بحَجَرٍ»، فيَلْزَمُ سَلْبُ الشَّيْءِ عن نَفْسِهِ، وذلك مُحالٌ. والسّالِبَةُ الجُزْئِيَّةُ لا تَنْعَكِسُ لُزُومًا؛ لجَوازِ عُمُومِ المَوْضُوعِ في الحَمْلِيَّةِ والمُقَدَّمِ في الشَّرْطِيَّةِ، مَثَلًا يَصْدُقُ «بَعْضُ الحَيَوانِ لَيْسَ بإنْسانٍ» ولَيْسَ يَصْدُقُ «بَعْضُ الإنْسانِ لَيْسَ بحَيَوانٍ». والمُوجَبَةُ الكُلِّيَّةُ تَنْعَكِسُ إلى مُوجَبَةٍ جُزْئِيَّةٍ، فقَوْلُنا: «كُلُّ إنْسانٍ حَيَوانٌ» يَنْعَكِسُ إلى قَوْلِنا: «بَعْضُ الحَيَوانِ إنْسانٌ»، ولا يَنْعَكِسُ إلى مُوجَبَةٍ كُلِّيَّةٍ؛ لأنّه يَجُوزُ أنْ يَكُونَ المَحْمُولُ والتّالِي عامًّا كما في مِثالِنا، فلا يَصْدُقُ «كُلُّ حَيَوانٍ إنْسانٌ». وهٰهُنا شَكٌّ، تَقْرِيرُهُ أنّ قَوْلَنا: «كُلُّ شَيْخٍ كانَ شابًّا» مُوجَبَةٌ كُلِّيَّةٌ صادِقَةٌ، مَعَ أنّ عَكْسَهُ «بَعْضُ الشّابِّ كانَ شَيْخًا» لَيْسَ بصادِقٍ. وأُجِيبَ عنه بأنّ عَكْسَهُ لَيْسَ ما ذَكَرْتَ، بل عَكْسُهُ «بَعْضُ مَن كانَ شابًّا شَيْخٌ». وقد يُجابُ بوَجْهٍ آخَرَ، وهو أنّ حِفْظَ النِّسْبَةِ لَيْسَ بضَرُورِيٍّ في العَكْسِ، فعَكْسُهُ «بَعْضُ الشّابِّ يَكُونُ شَيْخًا»، و هو صادِقٌ لا مَحالَةَ. والمُوجَبَةُ الجُزْئِيَّةُ تَنْعَكِسُ إلى مُوجَبَةٍ جُزْئِيَّةٍ، كقَوْلِنا: «بَعْضُ الحَيَوانِ إنْسانٌ» يَنْعَكِسُ إلى قَوْلِنا: «بَعْضُ الإنْسانِ حَيَوانٌ». وقد يُورَدُ على انْعِكاسِ المُوجَبَةِ الجُزْئِيَّةِ كنَفْسِها إيرادٌ، وهو أنّ «بَعْضَ الوَتِدِ في الحائِطِ» صادِقٌ، وعَكْسَهُ أعْنِي «بَعْضَ الحائِطِ في الوَتِدِ» غَيْرُ صادِقٍ. والجَوابُ أنّا لا نُسَلِّمُ أنّ عَكْسَ هذه القَضِيَّةِ ما قُلْتَ مِن «بَعْضِ الحائِطِ في الوَتِدِ»، بل عَكْسُهُ «بَعْضُ ما في الحائِطِ وَتِدٌ»، ولا مِرْيَةَ في صِدْقِهِ. وباقِي مَباحِثِ العُكُوسِ مِن عَكْسِ المُوَجَّهاتِ والشَّرْطِيّاتِ فمَذْكُورٌ في المُطَوَّلاتِ.

(al-ʿaks al-mustawī), also called straight conversion (al-ʿaks al-mustaqīm), is making the first part of a the second and the second part the first, while truth and quality remain. The converts as itself: as when you say “No human is a stone”, which converts to your saying “No stone is human”. [This is shown] by the of reductio (dalīl al-khulf). It runs as follows: if “No stone is human” were not true when our statement “No human is a stone” is true, its , our statement “Some stone is human”, would be true. We join this to the original and say: “Some stone is human, and no human is a stone”, which produces “Some stone is not a stone”. Then the of a thing from itself follows, and that is impossible. The does not necessarily convert, since the in a , and the in a , may be more general. For example, “Some animal is not human” is true, but “Some human is not an animal” is not true. The converts to a : our statement “Every human is an animal” converts to our statement “Some animal is human”. It does not convert to a universal affirmative, because the , or the , may be more general, as in our example; so “Every animal is human” is not true. Here there is a doubt, which runs as follows: our statement “Every old man was a young man” is a true universal affirmative, and yet its converse, “Some young man was an old man”, is not true. The answer given is that its converse is not what you have said; rather, its converse is “Some of those who were young men are old men”. Another answer is sometimes given: keeping the relation [exactly as it was] is not required in conversion, so its converse is “Some young man will be an old man”, and that is true without doubt. The particular affirmative converts to a particular affirmative, as when we say “Some animal is human”, which converts to our statement “Some human is an animal”. An objection is sometimes raised against the particular affirmative converting as itself: “Some peg is in the wall” is true, but its converse, I mean “Some wall is in the peg”, is not true. The answer is: we do not grant that the converse of this proposition is what you have said, “Some wall is in the peg”; rather, its converse is “Some of what is in the wall is a peg”, and there is no doubt that this is true. The rest of the discussions of conversion, the conversion of modal propositions and of conditionals, are given in the longer works.

al-Mirqāt · p. 34

فصل

عَكْسُ النَّقِيضِ هو جَعْلُ نَقِيضِ الجُزْءِ الأوَّلِ مِنَ القَضِيَّةِ ثانِيًا، ونَقِيضِ الجُزْءِ الثّانِي أوَّلًا، مَعَ بَقاءِ الصِّدْقِ والكَيْفِ؛ هذا أُسْلُوبُ المُتَقَدِّمِينَ. فتَنْعَكِسُ المُوجَبَةُ الكُلِّيَّةُ بهذا العَكْسِ كنَفْسِها، كقَوْلِنا: «كُلُّ إنْسانٍ حَيَوانٌ» يَنْعَكِسُ إلى قَوْلِنا: «كُلُّ لا حَيَوانٍ لا إنْسانٌ». والمُوجَبَةُ الجُزْئِيَّةُ لا تَنْعَكِسُ بهذا العَكْسِ؛ لأنّ قَوْلَنا: «بَعْضُ الحَيَوانِ لا إنْسانٌ» صادِقٌ، وعَكْسَهُ أعْنِي «بَعْضُ الإنْسانِ لا حَيَوانٌ» كاذِبٌ. والسّالِبَةُ الكُلِّيَّةُ تَنْعَكِسُ إلى سالِبَةٍ جُزْئِيَّةٍ؛ تَقُولُ: «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ الإنْسانِ بفَرَسٍ»، وتَقُولُ في عَكْسِهِ بهذا العَكْسِ: «بَعْضُ اللّافَرَسِ لَيْسَ بلا إنْسانٍ» إلى جُزْئِيَّةٍ، ولا تَقُولُ: «لا شَيْءَ مِنَ اللّافَرَسِ بلا إنْسانٍ» لصِدْقِ نَقِيضِهِ، أعْنِي «بَعْضُ اللّافَرَسِ لا إنْسانٌ» كالجِدارِ. والسّالِبَةُ الجُزْئِيَّةُ تَنْعَكِسُ إلى سالِبَةٍ جُزْئِيَّةٍ، كقَوْلِكَ: «بَعْضُ الحَيَوانِ لَيْسَ بإنْسانٍ» تَنْعَكِسُ إلى قَوْلِكَ: «بَعْضُ اللّاإنْسانِ لَيْسَ بلا حَيَوانٍ» كالفَرَسِ. وعُكُوسُ المُوَجَّهاتِ مَذْكُورَةٌ في الكُتُبِ الطِّوالِ. وهٰهُنا قد تَمَّ مَباحِثُ القَضايا وأحْكامِها.

(ʿaks al-naqīḍ) is making the of the first part of a the second, and the contradictory of the second part the first, while truth and quality remain; this is the method of the earlier . By this the converts as itself: as when we say “Every human is an animal”, which converts to our statement “Every non-animal is non-human”. The does not convert by this conversion, because our statement “Some animal is non-human” is true, while its converse, I mean “Some human is non-animal”, is false. The converts to a : you say “No human is a horse”, and in its converse by this conversion you say “Some non-horse is not non-human”, [converting it] to a ; you do not say “No non-horse is non-human”, because its contradictory, I mean “Some non-horse is non-human”, like the wall, is true. The particular negative converts to a particular negative: as when you say “Some animal is not human”, which converts to your saying “Some non-human is not non-animal”, like the horse. The conversions of modal propositions are given in the long books. With this the discussions of propositions and their rules are complete.

al-Mirqāt · p. 36

Test yourself

3 questions on what the commentary explains. With 6 out of 10 or more (two stars) the next lesson opens.

  1. Question 1

    How does al-Mirqāt show that “No human is a stone” converts to “No stone is human”?

  2. Question 2

    “Every old man was a young man” is true, but “Some young man was an old man” is not. How does al-Mirqāt answer this doubt about converting the universal affirmative?

  3. Question 3

    Under contraposition (ʿaks al-naqīḍ), the method of the earlier logicians, what does “Every human is an animal” become?

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